Spiral Communications -Deflation
Deflation in economics is a persistent decrease in the general price level[1] of goods and services - a negative inflation rate. When the inflation rate slows down (decreases, but remains positive), this is known as disinflation.
Inflation destroys real value in money. Deflation creates real value in money. Alternatively, the term deflation was used by the classical economists to refer to a decrease in the money supply and credit; some economists, including many Austrian school economists, still use the word in this sense. The two meanings are closely related, since a decrease in the money supply is likely to cause a decrease in the price level.
Deflation is considered a problem in a modern economy because of the potential of a deflationary spiral and its association with the Great Depression, although not all episodes of deflation correspond to periods of poor economic growth historically.
In economic theory, deflation is a general reduction in the level of prices, or of the prices of an entire kind of asset or commodity. Deflation should not be confused with temporarily falling prices; instead, it is a sustained fall in general prices. In the IS/LM model (that is, the Income and Saving equilibrium/ Liquidity Preference and Money Supply equilibrium model), deflation is caused by a shift in the supply and demand curve for goods and interest, particularly a fall in the aggregate level of demand. That is, there is a fall in how much the whole economy is willing to buy, and the going price for goods. Because the price of goods is falling, consumers have an incentive to delay purchases and consumption until prices fall further, which in turn reduces overall economic activity - contributing to the deflationary spiral.
Since this idles capacity, investment also falls, leading to further reductions in aggregate demand. This is the deflationary spiral. An answer to falling aggregate demand is stimulus, either from the central bank, by expanding the money supply, or by the fiscal authority to increase demand, and to borrow at interest rates which are below those available to private entities.
In more recent economic thinking, deflation is related to risk: where the risk adjusted return of assets drops to negative, investors and buyers will hoard currency rather than invest it, even in the most solid of securities. This can produce the theoretical condition, much debated as to its practical possibility, of a liquidity trap. A central bank cannot, normally, charge negative interest for money, and even charging zero interest often produces less stimulative effect than slightly higher rates of interest. In a closed economy, this is because charging zero interest also means having zero return on government securities, or even negative return on short maturities. In an open economy it creates a carry trade, and devalues the currency producing higher prices for imports without necessarily stimulating exports to a like degree.
In monetarist theory, deflation is related to a sustained reduction in the velocity of money or number of transactions. This is attributed to a dramatic contraction of the money supply, perhaps in response to a falling exchange rate, or to adhere to a gold standard or other external monetary base requirement.
Deflation is generally regarded negatively, as it is a tax on borrowers and on holders of illiquid assets, which accrues to the benefit of savers and of holders of liquid assets and currency. In this sense it is the opposite of inflation (or in the extreme, hyperinflation), which is a tax on currency holders and lenders (savers) in favor of borrowers and short term consumption. In modern economies, deflation is caused by a collapse in demand (usually brought on by high interest rates), and is associated with recession and (more rarely) long term economic depressions.
In modern economies, as loan terms have grown in length and financing is integral to building and general business, the penalties associated with deflation have grown larger. Since deflation discourages investment and spending, because there is no reason to risk on future profits when the expectation of profits may be negative and the expectation of future prices is lower, it generally leads to, or is associated with a collapse in aggregate demand. Without the "hidden risk of inflation", it may become more prudent just to hold onto money, and not to spend or invest it.
Deflation is, however, the natural condition of hard currency economies when the rate of increase in the supply of money is not maintained at a rate commensurate to positive population (and general economic) growth. When this happens, the available amount of hard currency per person falls, in effect making money scarcer; and consequently, the purchasing power of each unit of currency increases. The late 19th century provides an example of sustained deflation combined with economic development under these conditions.
Deflation also occurs when improvements in production efficiency lower the overall price of goods. Improvements in production efficiency generally happen because economic producers of goods and services are motivated by a promise of increased profit margins, resulting from the production improvements that they make. Competition in the marketplace often prompts those producers to apply at least some portion of these cost savings into reducing the asking price for their goods. When this happens, consumers pay less for those goods; and consequently deflation has occurred, since purchasing power has increased.
While an increase in the purchasing power of one's money sounds beneficial, it can actually cause hardship when the majority of one's net worth is held in illiquid assets such as homes, land, and other forms of private property. It also amplifies the sting of debt, since-- after some period of significant deflation-- the payments one is making in the service of a debt represent a larger amount of purchasing power than they did when the debt was first incurred. Consequently, deflation can be thought of as a phantom amplification of a loan's interest rate.
This lesson about protracted deflationary cycles and their attendant hardships has been felt several times in modern history. During the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution brought about a huge increase in production efficiency, that happened to coincide with a relatively flat money-supply. These two deflationary catalysts led, simultaneously, not only to tremendous capital development, but also to tremendous deprivation for millions of people who were ill-equipped to deal with the dark side of deflation. Business owners-- on average, better educated in economic theory than their unfortunate cohorts (or just better able to withstand the economic stresses) -- recognized the deflation cycle as it unfolded, and positioned themselves to leverage its beneficial aspects.
Hard money advocates argue that if there were no "rigidities" in an economy, then deflation should be a welcome effect, as the lowering of prices would allow more of the economy's effort to be moved to other areas of activity, thus increasing the total output of the economy. However, while there have been periods of 'beneficial' deflation (especially in industry segments, such as computers), more often it has led to the more severe form with negative impact to large segments of the populace and economy.
Since deflationary periods favor those who hold currency over those who do not, they are often matched with periods of rising populist sentiment, as in the late 19th century, when populists in the United States wanted to move off hard money standards and back to a money standard based on the more inflationary (because more abundantly available) metal silver.
Most economists agree that the effects of modest, long-term inflation are less damaging than deflation (which, even at best, is very hard to control). Deflation raises real wages, which are both difficult and costly for management to lower. This frequently leads to layoffs and makes employers reluctant to hire new workers, increasing unemployment.
Spiral Communications デフレスパイラル
デフレスパイラル
経済全体で、供給過多、需要不足が起こって、物価が低下する。商品価格が低下すると、生産者の利益が減り、利益が減った分だけ従業員の賃金が低下する。また企業の利益が減ると雇用を保持する余力が低下するので失業者が増える。従業員と家族は減った賃金で生活をやりくりしようとするため、あまり商品を買えなくなる（購買力の低下）。その結果商品は売れなくなり、生産者は商品価格を引き下げなければならなくなる。
物価が下がっても、名目金利は0%以下に下がらず、実質金利が高止まりし、実質的な債務負担が増す。債務負担を減らすために借金返済を優先する企業個人が増え、設備投資や住宅投資が縮小される。投資の縮小は総需要の減少へつながり物価の低下をもたらす。
上記のような循環がとどまることなく進むことを「デフレスパイラル」と呼ぶ。現代の経済においては、ビルト・イン・スタビライザーが効果を発揮することで、スパイラルになる可能性は低下している。
デフレーション
物価が持続的に下落していく経済現象を指す。 デフレとも呼ぶ。物価の下落は同時に貨幣価値の上昇も意味する。同じ金額の貨幣でより多くのものを買えるようになるからである。
1880年代前半に大蔵卿（1885年の内閣制度にともない大蔵大臣）の松方正義が緊縮財政を行い、それまで濫発されていた不換紙幣を償却し日本銀行を設立して銀本位制を実現させた。緊縮財政の結果、デフレ不況となった。(松方デフレ)
濱口雄幸首相と井上準之助蔵相が緊縮財政を行い、1930年に円切り上げ（円高）となる旧平価で金本位制に復帰し（いわゆる金解禁）、デフレ不況となった。
世界恐慌下のアメリカにおいては、当初、財政均衡主義が主流だったため、ビルト・イン・スタビライザーの効果が低下し、デフレスパイラルに陥った。設備投資はほぼ壊滅的とも言えるほど減少し、失業率が25%に達した。
第二次世界大戦後、1949年に超均衡予算を中心とするドッジ・ラインが実施されて、デフレ不況（ドッジデフレ・安定恐慌）が起こった。
急激な利上げと総量規制による貸出の制限でマネーサプライの伸びがマイナスになるほどの引締め政策でバブル経済が崩壊した1992年以降、ディスインフレ（物価上昇率の低下）の傾向を示すようになり、1997年の消費税等の増税・歳出削減などの緊縮財政により消費者物価上昇率がマイナスになり、デフレの様相を呈するようになった。1997年に発生したアジア通貨危機やこれに続いた日本の金融危機も原因として挙げられている。日銀による2000年のゼロ金利政策解除や2001年の国債30兆円枠による緊縮財政などの経済政策の失敗により、デフレ不況がさらに激しくなった。
1990年代から21世紀初頭に日本において見られた資産価格のデフレーションは、主に中央銀行（日本銀行）の金融引き締めがその原因の一つであったと考えられており、1990年代以降の日本の経済停滞（いわゆる「失われた10年」）の相当部分は、日銀の金融引き締めに端を発した資産デフレに責任があるとする向きもある。
デフレ期待を解消し停滞を打破するために量的金融緩和が開始された。この政策には、ゼロ金利の長期化が予想されることで中長期の金利を低下させる時間軸効果があるとされる。名目金利は0％までしか下げられず、デフレ下ではそれ以上の金融緩和ができない(流動性の罠)とされるが、インフレ期待などを通じた間接的な効果があるかどうかについては、様々な議論がある。
2006年では、2002年からの緩やかな景気回復により消費者物価指数ベースでのデフレ終了が見込まれているが、量的緩和解除が時期尚早でデフレが終わらない可能性を指摘する人もいる。
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